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    3ie invented evidence gap maps to improve decision-making around where to make investments in producing more evidence or synthesising existing evidence. Since then, we have pioneered further advancements, including developing our interactive online map platform and innovating evidence mapping to broaden its use in development decision-making.

    3ie funds and quality assures formative and impact evaluations of development programmes in low- and middle-income countries. These evaluations provide crucial evidence on what works, for whom, why and at what cost. On our website, we host the largest-of-its-kind impact evaluation repository that includes summaries of both 3ie-funded and other studies.

    We are global leaders in producing and assuring the quality of theory-based systematic reviews of the effectiveness of development interventions. 3ie continues to innovate and improve synthesis and systematic review methodologies and the uptake and use of synthesised evidence.

    3ie specialises in increasing access to, demand for and use of evidence by governments, parliaments, programme managers, civil society, programme participants and the media. We do this by emphasising the value of planning and engaging with stakeholders to ensure that evaluations and reviews are relevant and useful. We use robust and effective monitoring to measure evidence use so that we can convey evidence impact on programmes and policies with greater confidence.

    We set up our replication programme to address the need for a freely available global public good that helps improve the quality and reliability of impact evaluation evidence used for development decision-making. Replication is the most established method of research validation in science, yet it has not been fully embraced by the research community or development donors, leading to this gap.

    3ie’s evidence programmes and services help build technical capacity to commission and conduct rigorous evaluations, produce evidence gap maps, conduct evidence synthesis and use evidence. We also work with L&MIC governments to build effective monitoring and evaluation systems. 3ie’s bursary programme supports L&MIC policymakers, programme managers and researchers to participate in specialised training and international events.

    3ie has always been strongly committed to research transparency and open access to data. We are proud to be a leader in the growing movement to improve global standards for research transparency.

    On request, 3ie provides services to partners for supporting the generation and use of evidence to inform their development policies and programmes. We commission and quality assure evidence gap maps, evaluations and syntheses as well as provide training.

    3ie plays a unique role in promoting collaboration among researchers, policymakers and development programme managers at country, regional and global levels. Our global advocacy for evidence-informed action helps ensure decision makers have quality evidence about what works when they need it.

  • Evidence hub
    • 3ie Development Evidence Portal
    • Evidence gap maps
    • Replication studies
    • Publications
    • RIDIE
    • Evidence impact summaries

    3ie’s Development Evidence Portal is the largest-of-its-kind repository of rigorous evidence on what works in international development. This portal includes evaluations and synthesis of studies conducted in low-and middle-income countries. It combines records from 3ie’s Impact Evaluation and Systematic Review repositories, as well as, evidence gap maps.

    These provide a visual display of completed and ongoing systematic reviews and impact evaluations in a sector or sub-sector, structured around a framework of interventions and outcomes.

    We provide funding for replications, conduct in-house replication research and publish guidance on replication methodology. We also provide funding to original authors of 3ie-funded for preparing their raw datasets.

    As part of our mandate as a knowledge producer and translator for our main audiences, we publish a range of knowledge products. These include briefs, impact evaluation reports, systematic review reports and summaries, replication papers, evidence gap map reports, scoping reports and working papers.

    3ie’s Registry for International Development Impact Evaluations (RIDIE) aims to enhance the transparency and quality of impact evaluation research before it begins.

    Evidence impact summaries briefly describe how 3ie-supported evidence has informed and influenced decision makers. Each summary highlights verified instances of evidence impact.

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    • Replication
      • Replication Programme on Financial Services for the Poor
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    3ie’s evidence programmes support studies to fill critical knowledge gaps in a sector, sub-sector or in an area with limited rigorous evidence. We fund studies under a specific theme or which address a particular question or set of questions in programme areas where our donors want to expand global public knowledge of what works and what does not.

    To help address gaps in the understanding of what works and what does not, we fund a variety of studies across this programme area, including interventions focused on insurance, extension, land-use and forestry, and innovation and technology.

    3ie supports impact evaluations, systematic reviews and evidence gap maps on education effectiveness that help answer the questions of what works, for whom, why and at what cost.

    We fund the production of rigorous evidence on biodiversity and forest conservation programmes, environmental regulations, impact of sustainable fuels, climate change mitigation and adaptation.

    3ie is supporting the generation of evidence in areas such as transparency and accountability in natural resource governance. We also fund the production of rigorous evidence on interventions to curb corruption, judicial and civil service reforms, land reforms, public financial management, conflict prevention and peacebuilding, decentralised governance and public service delivery.

    We fund the production of rigorous evidence on interventions on HIV and AIDS, immunisation maternal and child health, nutrition and sexual and reproductive health through a number of evidence programmes. Evidence products from these programmes include replication studies, evidence gap maps, systematic reviews and impact evaluations.

    We are supporting the generation of rigorous evidence in humanitarian contexts on interventions related to water, sanitation and hygiene, food security, multi-sectoral humanitarian programming and interventions targeting malnutrition.

    We fund the production of rigorous evidence on the socio-economic and environmental impacts of public transportation by rail, bus and rapid transit systems, and essential services such as electricity and gas to expand access, foster inclusive growth, and combat climate change through sustainable systems.

    3ie, in collaboration with India’s rural development ministry is working to generate rigorous evidence on the impact of the National Rural Livelihoods Mission.

    We support policy-relevant studies that contribute to improving our understanding of public expenditure trends and improving the delivery of public goods.

    We support impact evaluations to build the evidence base on the effectiveness of interventions that reduce the risks faced by the poor through participation in public works and employment programmes.

    3ie’s has two major evidence programmes that support the generation and use of high-quality evidence for informing decision-making in the water, sanitation and hygiene sector

    In alignment with our mission, 3ie promotes rigorous, efficient, and ethical use of innovative data sources for impact evaluations, including in those conducted by 3ie, by 3ie research partners, and in the global development community more broadly.

    .

    We work with various departments in the Philippines government to develop and fund rigorous evidence useful for policymakers. We also support capacity-building activities for Philippine researchers and support the impact evaluation management framework of the National Economic and Development Authority.

    Working in collaboration with the Office of the Prime Minister, the primary aim is to improve developmental outcomes through evidence-informed decision making in Uganda. 3ie is currently supporting evaluation of government programmes around youth livelihood, family planning, public service delivery and local governance, and universal primary education.

    3ie and the government of Benin are working on a a multi-year regional initiative that aims to promote the institutionalization of evaluation in government systems across eight countries in West Africa, including: Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo.
     

    This is a five-year programme (2019-23) that is working on increasing the use of evidence by policymakers in Ghana, Pakistan and Uganda. In partnership with country governments, this programme aims to develop capacity and promote innovation in increasing evidence-informed decision-making. SEDI is funded by the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office.

    .

    3ie funds internal replications of influential or innovative impact evaluations of financial interventions on mobile money, cash transfers, bank deposits, and other financial service interventions targeted towards underserved and unbanked populations in developing countries.

    3ie funds internal replications of influential or innovative impact evaluations of biomedical, behavioural, social, and structural HIV prevention and treatment interventions to improve the evidence base in low- and middle-income countries.

  • Funding
    • Open opportunities

    View our current funding opportunities for evaluations, systematic reviews and internal replication studies.

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  • Our expertise
    • Evidence mapping
    • Impact evaluation
    • Synthesis
    • Evidence impact
    • Replication
    • Capacity development
    • Research transparency
    • Services
    • Advocacy

    3ie invented evidence gap maps to improve decision-making around where to make investments in producing more evidence or synthesising existing evidence. Since then, we have pioneered further advancements, including developing our interactive online map platform and innovating evidence mapping to broaden its use in development decision-making.

    3ie funds and quality assures formative and impact evaluations of development programmes in low- and middle-income countries. These evaluations provide crucial evidence on what works, for whom, why and at what cost. On our website, we host the largest-of-its-kind impact evaluation repository that includes summaries of both 3ie-funded and other studies.

    We are global leaders in producing and assuring the quality of theory-based systematic reviews of the effectiveness of development interventions. 3ie continues to innovate and improve synthesis and systematic review methodologies and the uptake and use of synthesised evidence.

    3ie specialises in increasing access to, demand for and use of evidence by governments, parliaments, programme managers, civil society, programme participants and the media. We do this by emphasising the value of planning and engaging with stakeholders to ensure that evaluations and reviews are relevant and useful. We use robust and effective monitoring to measure evidence use so that we can convey evidence impact on programmes and policies with greater confidence.

    We set up our replication programme to address the need for a freely available global public good that helps improve the quality and reliability of impact evaluation evidence used for development decision-making. Replication is the most established method of research validation in science, yet it has not been fully embraced by the research community or development donors, leading to this gap.

    3ie’s evidence programmes and services help build technical capacity to commission and conduct rigorous evaluations, produce evidence gap maps, conduct evidence synthesis and use evidence. We also work with L&MIC governments to build effective monitoring and evaluation systems. 3ie’s bursary programme supports L&MIC policymakers, programme managers and researchers to participate in specialised training and international events.

    3ie has always been strongly committed to research transparency and open access to data. We are proud to be a leader in the growing movement to improve global standards for research transparency.

    On request, 3ie provides services to partners for supporting the generation and use of evidence to inform their development policies and programmes. We commission and quality assure evidence gap maps, evaluations and syntheses as well as provide training.

    3ie plays a unique role in promoting collaboration among researchers, policymakers and development programme managers at country, regional and global levels. Our global advocacy for evidence-informed action helps ensure decision makers have quality evidence about what works when they need it.

  • Evidence hub
    • 3ie Development Evidence Portal
    • Evidence gap maps
    • Replication studies
    • Publications
    • RIDIE
    • Evidence impact summaries

    3ie’s Development Evidence Portal is the largest-of-its-kind repository of rigorous evidence on what works in international development. This portal includes evaluations and synthesis of studies conducted in low-and middle-income countries. It combines records from 3ie’s Impact Evaluation and Systematic Review repositories, as well as, evidence gap maps.

    These provide a visual display of completed and ongoing systematic reviews and impact evaluations in a sector or sub-sector, structured around a framework of interventions and outcomes.

    We provide funding for replications, conduct in-house replication research and publish guidance on replication methodology. We also provide funding to original authors of 3ie-funded for preparing their raw datasets.

    As part of our mandate as a knowledge producer and translator for our main audiences, we publish a range of knowledge products. These include briefs, impact evaluation reports, systematic review reports and summaries, replication papers, evidence gap map reports, scoping reports and working papers.

    3ie’s Registry for International Development Impact Evaluations (RIDIE) aims to enhance the transparency and quality of impact evaluation research before it begins.

    Evidence impact summaries briefly describe how 3ie-supported evidence has informed and influenced decision makers. Each summary highlights verified instances of evidence impact.

  • Our work
      • Agriculture
      • Education
      • Environment
      • Governance
      • Health
      • Humanitarian
      • Infrastructure
      • Livelihoods
      • Public finance
      • Social protection
      • Water, sanitation and hygiene
      • Innovations in data for impact evaluation
    • Working with governments
      • Philippines
      • Uganda
      • West Africa Capacity-buidling and Impact Evaluation
      • Strengthening the use of evidence for development impact
    • Replication
      • Replication Programme on Financial Services for the Poor
      • Replication programme on HIV prevention

    3ie’s evidence programmes support studies to fill critical knowledge gaps in a sector, sub-sector or in an area with limited rigorous evidence. We fund studies under a specific theme or which address a particular question or set of questions in programme areas where our donors want to expand global public knowledge of what works and what does not.

    To help address gaps in the understanding of what works and what does not, we fund a variety of studies across this programme area, including interventions focused on insurance, extension, land-use and forestry, and innovation and technology.

    3ie supports impact evaluations, systematic reviews and evidence gap maps on education effectiveness that help answer the questions of what works, for whom, why and at what cost.

    We fund the production of rigorous evidence on biodiversity and forest conservation programmes, environmental regulations, impact of sustainable fuels, climate change mitigation and adaptation.

    3ie is supporting the generation of evidence in areas such as transparency and accountability in natural resource governance. We also fund the production of rigorous evidence on interventions to curb corruption, judicial and civil service reforms, land reforms, public financial management, conflict prevention and peacebuilding, decentralised governance and public service delivery.

    We fund the production of rigorous evidence on interventions on HIV and AIDS, immunisation maternal and child health, nutrition and sexual and reproductive health through a number of evidence programmes. Evidence products from these programmes include replication studies, evidence gap maps, systematic reviews and impact evaluations.

    We are supporting the generation of rigorous evidence in humanitarian contexts on interventions related to water, sanitation and hygiene, food security, multi-sectoral humanitarian programming and interventions targeting malnutrition.

    We fund the production of rigorous evidence on the socio-economic and environmental impacts of public transportation by rail, bus and rapid transit systems, and essential services such as electricity and gas to expand access, foster inclusive growth, and combat climate change through sustainable systems.

    3ie, in collaboration with India’s rural development ministry is working to generate rigorous evidence on the impact of the National Rural Livelihoods Mission.

    We support policy-relevant studies that contribute to improving our understanding of public expenditure trends and improving the delivery of public goods.

    We support impact evaluations to build the evidence base on the effectiveness of interventions that reduce the risks faced by the poor through participation in public works and employment programmes.

    3ie’s has two major evidence programmes that support the generation and use of high-quality evidence for informing decision-making in the water, sanitation and hygiene sector

    In alignment with our mission, 3ie promotes rigorous, efficient, and ethical use of innovative data sources for impact evaluations, including in those conducted by 3ie, by 3ie research partners, and in the global development community more broadly.

    .

    We work with various departments in the Philippines government to develop and fund rigorous evidence useful for policymakers. We also support capacity-building activities for Philippine researchers and support the impact evaluation management framework of the National Economic and Development Authority.

    Working in collaboration with the Office of the Prime Minister, the primary aim is to improve developmental outcomes through evidence-informed decision making in Uganda. 3ie is currently supporting evaluation of government programmes around youth livelihood, family planning, public service delivery and local governance, and universal primary education.

    3ie and the government of Benin are working on a a multi-year regional initiative that aims to promote the institutionalization of evaluation in government systems across eight countries in West Africa, including: Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo.
     

    This is a five-year programme (2019-23) that is working on increasing the use of evidence by policymakers in Ghana, Pakistan and Uganda. In partnership with country governments, this programme aims to develop capacity and promote innovation in increasing evidence-informed decision-making. SEDI is funded by the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office.

    .

    3ie funds internal replications of influential or innovative impact evaluations of financial interventions on mobile money, cash transfers, bank deposits, and other financial service interventions targeted towards underserved and unbanked populations in developing countries.

    3ie funds internal replications of influential or innovative impact evaluations of biomedical, behavioural, social, and structural HIV prevention and treatment interventions to improve the evidence base in low- and middle-income countries.

  • Funding
    • Open opportunities

    View our current funding opportunities for evaluations, systematic reviews and internal replication studies.

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srs7

The impact of education programmes on learning and school participation in low- and middle-income countries

Systematic Review Summary 7

Birte Snilstveit, Jennifer Stevenson, Radhika Menon, Daniel Phillips, Emma Gallagher, Maisie Geleen, Hannah Jobse, Tanja Schmidt and Emmanuel Jimenez

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Around 250 million children in low-and middle-income countries (L&MICs) cannot read, write or do basic maths. A range of different education interventions have been implemented to resolve what is being seen as a learning crisis. But do these interventions work?

To answer this question, 3ie carried out the most comprehensive systematic review conducted to date on education effectiveness. The review examined the impact of 216 education programmes in 52 L&MICs. It synthesised evidence on the effects of 21 different types of education interventions on children’s school enrolment, attendance, completion and learning.

To distil the main findings and key implications for policy, programming and research, 3ie has published a summary report of this comprehensive systematic review, The impact of education programmes on learning and school participation in low- and middle-income countries by Snilstveit et al., which offers governments and international agencies several useful pointers for helping them identify effective education programmes to meet the education Sustainable Development Goal.


Main findings

Overall, the results demonstrate there are no ‘magic bullets’ to ensure high-quality education for all. However, there are several lessons that can be learned for improving future education programmes. Most education programmes typically improve either school participation or learning outcomes. They rarely improve both.

To better understand the different ways that education interventions are designed and targeted, the reviewers categorised them into five levels: children, households, teachers, schools and systems. The infographic illustrates the results of this review by highlighting the interventions that appear to work in most contexts, those that are promising (but require further testing), those that do not always work and those that have unknown effects due to lack of sufficient studies.

Overview of results across the review

Missing media item.

Programmes typically improve learning  or participation, but not both. Tackling the learning crisis requires concurrently addressing multiple barriers to quality education

What works in most contexts.

  • Cash transfers had the largest and most consistent positive effects on increasing school enrolment, reducing dropouts and improving completion. However, on average, they have not improved learning outcomes.
  • Structured pedagogy programmes had the largest and most consistent positive effects on improving learning outcomes. These are programmes that typically provide customised curricula, new instructional approaches and teachers’ training, and educational materials for students.

What is promising

  • School-feeding and community based monitoring interventions are among the few programmes that are promising for improving school enrolment as well as learning.
  • Public-private partnerships, new schools and toilets are promising for improving participation outcomes.
  • Extending the school day, remedial education programmes and meritbased scholarships are promising for improving learning outcomes.

What doesn't always work

  • School-based management programmes, computer-assisted learning and programmes providing education materials have not improved learning outcomes in most contexts. In the case of computer-assisted learning, the effects on learning outcomes have even been negative in some contexts.

What is unknown

  • The overall effects of implementing school-based health programmes, providing information to children or parents and reducing user fees are not clear because there have been few high-quality studies on these interventions.

The evidence base

The number of studies included in this systematic review is larger than that of any other systematic review on this topic conducted to date.

The researchers synthesised evidence from 238 impact evaluations and 121 qualitative research studies and process evaluations.

Our review found that the distribution of impact evaluations of education interventions is uneven across different areas. For example, interventions such as cash transfers, structured pedagogy and computer-assisted learning have been studied extensively. However, the evidence on some other interventions such as school-based health, information to children, teacher interventions, remedial education and school day extension, is more limited.

Uneven distribution of impact evaluations across intervention areas

Missing media item.

Distribution of studies across regions and countries

The distribution of studies across geographic regions was also uneven. The highest number of studies were identified from Latin America and the Caribbean (87), Sub-Saharan Africa (59) and South Asia (51). Countries where several studies have been conducted include Brazil, Chile, China, India, Kenya, Mexico, South Africa and Uganda. For most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, we identified few or no studies. Evidence is also limited or non-existent from several countries with large populations, such as Indonesia, Nigeria and Bangladesh.

Missing media item.

SRS11 SRH

Economic self-help group programmes for improving women’s empowerment

Systematic review summary 3ie 2019
 
This report summarises a systematic review by Brody and colleagues on the impacts of women’s economic self-help groups on their political, economic, social and psychological empowerment.

SRS10

Promoting handwashing and sanitation behaviour change in low-and middle-income countries

Systematic review summary 3ie 2017
 
This report summarises a systematic review that examines which promotional approaches are effective in changing handwashing and sanitation behaviour and which implementation factors affect the success or failure of such interventions.

What factors affect sustained adoption of safe water, hygiene and sanitation technologies?

What factors affect sustained adoption of safe water, hygiene and sanitation technologies?

Systematic review summary 3ie 2015
 
Safe water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) behaviours, such as treating drinking water, washing hands at key times or using a latrine rather than defecating in open spaces, are cornerstones of building strong, healthy communities and reducing mortality due to diarrhoea and other preventable diseases. Many studies have shown the health benefits of WASH, and factors that affect initial adoption of short-term WASH use. Few have assessed the determinants of long-term, sustained WASH practice.

Identification and measurement of health-related spillovers in impact evaluations

Identification and measurement of health-related spillovers in impact evaluations

Systematic review summary 3ie 2016
 
This systematic review summary by Benjamin-Chung and colleagues tries to identify mechanisms that trigger spillover through geographic or social proximity, learning or imitation, norm-shaping, income and substitute effects, general equilibrium effects and relative deprivation.

Community-based rehabilitation for people with disabilities

Community-based rehabilitation for people with disabilities

Systematic review summary 3ie 2016
 
This report by Lemmi and colleagues is based on a systematic review that looked at the impact of community-based rehabilitation (CBR) on health, education, livelihoods, social inclusion and empowerment.

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Thank you for your interest in this publication

To download and save this document, please fill out this very short form. This will help us understand how our work is being used. We do not share your name or email with anyone.
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Our expertise

  • Evidence mapping
  • Impact evaluation
  • Synthesis
  • Evidence impact
  • Replication
  • Capacity development
  • Research transparency
  • Services
  • Advocacy

Evidence hub

  • 3ie Development Evidence Portal
  • Evidence gap maps
  • Replication studies
  • Publications
  • RIDIE

Our work

  • Agriculture
  • Education
  • Environment
  • Governance
  • Health
  • Humanitarian
  • Infrastructure
  • Livelihoods
  • Public finance
  • Social protection
  • Water, sanitation and hygiene
  • Innovations in data for impact evaluation
  • Philippines
  • Uganda
  • West Africa Capacity-building and Impact Evaluation
  • Strengthening the use of evidence for development impact
  • Replication Programme on Financial services for the poor
  • Replication Programme on HIV Prevention

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  • Open opportunities
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